A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists: Cockney is a dialect of English.
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We happen to know that besides being a poet, he is a guitarist. In his book Christ and Apollo, William Lynch points out that there are two kinds of imaginative fiction.
The first sends its message through writing that is concrete. The significance shines through the characters and events in the story. It is incarnational writing. The second kind attempts to communicate its message through more abstract prose.
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Login here Membership requires a valid email address. Bazin feels that a film is neither the product of translation or free inspiration, but the result of a creative dialectic. Film according to Bazin, is a question of building a secondary work with the novel as foundation.
In no sense is the film "comparable" to the novel or "worthy" of it. It is a new aesthetic creation, the novel so to speak, multiplied by the Cinema. For Bazin, the novel is a stimulus and the adapter is an interpreter. Bazin's writings on the interrelations between the novel and the film also explicitly refers to a fidelity to the spirit of the text as a primary aesthetic design of the adaptation.
A successful film adaptation according to him is neither a replication nor a substitute; it is re-experience in another medium. His basic assumption is that the film trivialises its original. He believes that the movement from novel into film necessitates changes: - Essentially this is a stylistic change which substitutes a pictorial style for the literary style of the novel.
It alters the manner of story telling but need not alter the matter. The form determines the content as completely as the content determines the form. The emphasis on faithfulness to the written text makes the adaptations lose its creative claims. An adaptation seen in that perspective can never be equal to, or better than its source. Commenting on the film's frequent alteration of the source Lester Asheim says that such manipulation, if not immoral is at least grossly dishonest: The audience that knows only the film and not the book is presented with a 'falsified' interpretation which leaves no clues that would permit it to reconstruct the original truth.
Kracauer is equally dismissive. No matter how "cinematic" a novel might be, "there are no genuinely cinematic literary forms ". According to him, fiction is metamorphosed into a new artistic entity. In asserting that a filmmaker is not simply a translator but a new author, his bias becomes apparent. He says: In film criticism, it has always been easy to recognise how a poor film 'destroys' a superior novel. What has not been sufficiently recognised is that such destruction is inevitable.
The famous film director of France, Bresson had claimed that his movie Diary of a Country Priest follows its original source by the same name and written by Bernanos, page by page. Bazin commented upon the film by saying that Bresson's film is not better than but "more than the book". Inspite of the fidelity to the text which Bazin insisted upon, the film by Bresson provides a wholly different experience.
A direct verbal borrowing from a book is changed totally when seen and heard along with a visual. The Italian "New Wave" film director had once suggested that the ultimate literary adaptation could be a close up on a book with pages turned at regular intervals. But even this strategy would not provide a faithful rendition of the novel for the experience of viewing a film is inherently different from that of reading a novel.
The French Auteurists never treated filmmaking as a "seventh art" or as a separate art but as an equal member of cultural pantheon. They spoke of film as language and the film director as a kind of writer, motivated by a desire for personal expression wielding a lens instead of a pen.
They elevated the cinematic mise-en-scene the director's treatment of camera movement, space, decor and editing to a greater importance than the scenario. Some of the filmmakers deliberately avoided adaptations of great literature in order to foreground their own artistry.
In general, however it continues to waver back and forth between the two approaches; one exemplified by Bluestone and the second by the Auteurists. The Bluestone approach relies on an implicit metaphor of translation, which governs all investigations of how codes move across sign systems. Writing in this category pays close attention to the problem of textual fidelity in order to identity the specific formal capabilities of the media. By contrast, the Auteurists approach relies on a metaphor of performance.
They also deal with questions of textual fidelity but it emphasizes difference rather than similarity, individual styles rather than formal systems. Roland Barthes while defining the essence of a narrative function claims that, "a narrative is never made up of anything other than functions : in differing degrees, everything in it signifies.
The former refers to actions and events; they are horizontal in nature and they are strung together linearly in a text and refer to a functionality of doing. Indices denotes a 'more or less diffuse concept which is nevertheless necessary to the meaning of the text. The most important kinds of transfer possible from novel to film are located in the category of Functions Proper rather than Indices.
Barthes further subdivides functions to include Cardinal Functions nuclei and 'Kernels' in Seymour Chatman's22 terms. Cardinal Functions are hinge point of narratives. They are the risky moments of the narrative they provide the possibility of alternatives of consequence to the development of the story. Deletion or alteration of Cardinal Functions may result in critical disappointment towards a film version. Catalysers are the other part of Function Proper which are complementary to Cardinal Functions and denotes small actions.
Their role is to root the Cardinal Functions in a particular kind of reality, and enrich it. In Barthes' words unlike the risky moments laid out by Cardinal Functions, the Catalysers 'layout areas of safety, rests, luxuries'.
But in 'Indices' only the 'informant' part of the Indices can be transferred because that contains data of names, age, profession of character etc.
The Indices Proper which relates to concepts of characters, atmosphere may not be transferable. Brian McFarlane In his work Novel to Film 24 borrows Barthes' categories of Cardinal Functions, Catalysers and suggests procedures for distinguishing between that which can be transferred from one medium to another essentially, narrative and that which being dependent on different signifying systems cannot be transferred essentially enunciation.
Dudley Andrew in his book Concepts in Film Theory25 talks about three modes of relation between the film and the text: borrowing, intersection and fidelity of transformation. While borrowing meant simple process of transfer of 'generality of the original' which continues to exist as an archetype in culture. Intersection would at best be understood as initiating a direct interplay of between aesthetic forms of one period and the cinematic forms of our period and trying to adapt what forms of our period, trying to adapt what resists adaptation.
Adaptation for Dudley Andrew then becomes a search in two' systems of communication for elements of equivalent positions, for example the description of a narrative action. Andrew however saw a futuristic potential in the study of film adaptations. He felt that they should not be merely used as illustrations to emphasise either the essence of the media or the inviolability of individual artworks.
Robert B. Ray echoes a similar sentiment in his essay, 'The Field of Literature and Film'. We still have not learnt the art of using images and sounds combined with language as a tool for pedagogy. Our academics are still bound to the word. He goes on to cite examples of explorations into transactions between the word and image: Freud's positing of the unconscious and the dream , Eisenstein's and Pound's fascination with the Chinese ideogram, Barthes' semiotic inquiries into the relationships between photograph and caption, Godard's experiments with language remotivating imagery Ray is trying to suggest is that word and image in their adapted forms have come to stay and the focus should now shift from purely academic studies of adaptation to usmg such, adaptations for new purposes.
Moreover, such studies will also reveal the intertexuallity that operates in media and how they structure public opinion and social thought at a given time and place. Screen adaptations have been viewed differently by different film theorists. While Andre Bazin saw them as translations from a linguistic medium to a visual medium, George Bluestone calleq it a new work of art, where adapter was the creator.
What we have In a film adaptation IS a transformation from one way of seeing to another. The process of this transformation allows the best approach to an understanding of the differences and similarities that exist between these two modes of representation i.
The film version of a novel could be also be a critical essay emphasising the main theme of the novel. Like criticism, the film adaptation selects some episodes, excludes others, and offers preferred alternatives. It may focus on specific areas in the novel, expand or contract details and may also indulge in fanciful flights about some characters.
This critical gloss may make it even more convincing than the original, and hence enrich the appreciation of the novel. The trend is popular that the authors consider screen rights of their work when sent for pUblishing. About one fourth of all films made in the world are adaptations and the percentage is even higher in England and United States. A successful novel assures the producer of a ready made audience for the film and hence the project is inherently lucrative.
However, there is yet another aspect, which needs consideration. Many adaptations that have been faithful to the text have somehow appeared as utter betrayals of the source text for e. Hardy's Jude the obscure On the contrary Akira Kurosawa's Throne of Blood based on Macbeth, which altered the story, setting, character and time frame and the language, IS stilr held to be one of the greatest Shakespeare adaptations ever.
In order to differentiate between variations undertaken m adaptations, the film theorists have attempted to classify adaptations, arranging them into modes or types.
They find their precedent however in literary theory i. Paraphrase: Where the author is not literally translated word by word but his sense is retained and amplified. Imitation: Where the translator assumes the liberty not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only some general hints from the original. Like a translator, the filmmaker who adapts, must demonstrate some fidelity to the source text and at the same time create a new work of art in a new language, in this case the cinematic language.
Morris Beja sees two main classifications 29 : the first approach asks for complete integrity of the original work and the second approach is to adapt the original work freely, in order to create in a different medium, a new kind of art with its own integrity. Michael Klein and Gillian Parker identifies three types of adaptation. Apocalypse Now based on Conrad's Heart of Darkness in cited as an example for the third category. Geoffrey Wagner, as if taking a cue from John Dryden's translation model, identifies three methods of dramatisation: 31 Transposition: In which a novel is directly given on the screen, with the minimum of apparent interference.
Wagner calls this method most pervasive, least satisfactory and puerile. Commentary: In which an original is either purposely or inadvertently altered to re-emphasise or restructure. Analogy: In analogy, the fiction is taken as a point of departure.
To judge whether or not a film is a successful adaptation of a novel is to evaluate the skill of its makers in striking analogous attitudes and in finding analogous rhetorical techniques. An analogy is merely a departure and not a literary original. Dudley Andrew widened the adaptation debate by including all , representational films as adaptation.
He observes that every representational film adapts a prior conception. Dudley Andrew identifies three types of adaptation from prose to screen: 33 Borrowing: It is not an attempt to replicate the original work, instead the audience calls up new or powerful aspects of a cherished work. Fidelity or Transformation: In this method, the aIm is to reproduce something essential about an original text and the film is a skeleton of the original, which tries to measure up to a literary work.
Andrew's categories are not distinctly different from each other. It also follows that the element of fidelity, criticism, transformation will always operate in various degrees in all screen adaptations of literary text. The adaptations somehow always; subvert its original by performing a dual task of masking and unveiling its source.
The sociological issues such as the methods of production, distribution and consumption of the novel and film are also an area of consideration. The adaptations not only add to the body of interpretation, criticism and analysis of the text but also lead to the renewal of interest in the book itself. The new edition encashed on the publicity unleashed by the popular film director. The author in order to provide an authenticity to the autobiographical narrative appears in person, in the film.
However, the reverse is also true. Films based on original scripts also have simultaneous pUblication of a 'novelisation' i. Adaptations are obviously undertaken for a variety of reasons, ranging from bringing of a literary text to a wider audience, sometimes to cash in on its cultural respectability and popularity or sometimes to comment upon or develop an aspect of the original text.
Gaston Roberge 34 adds to the debate by asking the following questions: Why is a particular novel chosen for adaptation at a particular time?
What ideological transformation is the novel submitted to in the process of adaptation? In this context, he goes on to ask why Ray chose to film 'Pather Panchali' in the early 's and why he changed the structure of the novel such that it was a total cinematic refraction? Why were so many Mahabharatas' Benegal's and Sippy's produced in 's and 's? To look at such attempts differently one would say the subject matter lent itself beautifully to the film medium. Merchant-Ivory productions monopolising on James and Forster novels must have had such sociological or ideological motivations.
In the history of Cinema, repeated cinematic adaptations of a particular classic are not a rarity. The compUlsion to transcreate a particular text over and over again is an interesting phenomenon. It is like rereading or rewriting a text in different times, from different points of view. The varied renderings of a written text no doubt enrich the source text by providing it with footnotes and a fresh interpretation.
A brief evaluation of two such texts and their film version will 'highlight this contention. Charles Dickens' Great Expectations and Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre are two such classics, which have been adapted for film several times.
Two such film versions of each text have been picked at random for analysis. These film versions of each text are greatly distanced in time and hence in treatment. These film versions not only convey different meanings and ideological shifts but also belong to different categories of adaptation. Charles Dickens' Great Expectations has inspired several film versions till date. The following data is an indication of that: - Movies 1. Great Expectations 2.
Great Expectations 7 3. Great Expectations 4. Great Expectations 5. Great Expectations 6. Great Expectations TV 2. Great Expectations TV David Lean's film by the same name in is considered to be a literal translation of the Dickens' novel.
It is a Transposition in Geoffrey Wagner's term in which a novel is directly given to the screen with minimum interference. It is purposely altered to re-emphasise and reconstruct. Pip o Anthony Wager Young Pip o Valerie Hobson Young Estella o Bernard Miles Joe Gargery o Francis L.
Jaggers o Finlay Currie Magwitch o Martita Hunt Miss Havisham o Alec Guinness Herbert Pocket o Ivor Barnard Wemmick o Freda Jackson Joe o Eileen Erskine Biddy o George Hayes I Convict o Hay Petrie
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